History of Sudan The Land and Location Before presenting the History and Geography of this country, here is a brief definition of the name Sudan. Ancient Arab historians gave the name Sudan to the vast lands beyond the Great African Desert. But while ancient Sudan, which meant the land of the black people, embodied a broad geographical and human spectrum, modern Sudan with its present state boundaries came to existence only at the beginning of this century. Sudan is the largest country in Africa. Stretching from Egypt in the north to Uganda in the south and sharing borders with nine countries. This vast territory measures about 1,000,000 sq. miles, which constitutes 8.3 % of the land area of Africa. It is geographically situated almost at the centre of the continent, between longitudes 22 and 38 East and latitudes 4 and 22 North. Sudan shares borders with nine African countries of which two are Afro-Arab, lying in the North of Sudan, they are Egypt (1,200 km), and Libya (380 km). In the East, there are Ethiopia, Eritrea and the Red Sea with a total border of (6,630 km). While Kenya (200 km), Uganda (400 km) and Zaire (500 km) lie in the South. And the Central African Republic (900 km) and Chad (1, 100 km) are in the West. As such, it naturally became a zone of interaction between the Hamitic Arabs and the Negro Africans. This blending resulted in Sudan's many different ethnic groups and unique cultures. Ancient History Finds of Palaeolithic tools attest the existence of Old Stone Age man in Sudan. The first known settlements date probably between 5000-4000 BC. Their occupants had no knowledge of agriculture. Ancient Egyptian records provide the only source of information about early historical events and are confined to Northern Sudan (Ancient Kush). The earliest of these recorded events were the raids by Egyptians from the Old Kingdom in about 2800 BC. Two hundred years later, the Egyptians established trade with the Dongola area and an expedition may have gone as far as Darfur. During this period, the Sudan was inhabited by groups of people engaged in agricultural and pastoral pursuits, ignorant of the arts of writing and metallurgy. Those of them who lived in the North are known as the "A" group: their most important settlement yet found is located at Faras, near Wadi Halfa. People of a sculpture are known to have lived in the area of Khartoum. During the Middle Kingdom of Egypt, beginning in about 2,000 BC, the Egyptians colonised the Sudan as far as the Fourth Cataract and established a governor at Kerma, whose large fortified residence can still be seen today. A string of forts was built along the Nile to protect the communication routes to Egypt. This occupation lasted for 300 years, at the end of which some disaster occurred of which we have no details, but which caused the destruction of the forts by fire and the disappearance of the Egyptian administration. The invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, an Asiatic people, in about 1700B.C., had probably a strong relation to this collapse. After the expulsion of the Hyksos in 1580 BC, the Egyptians soon reasserted their domination of Sudan during the reign of Ahmas 1, the founder of the 18th dynasty of pharaohs. With the decline of the Egyptian Empire at the end of the second millennium, the Egyptians again disappeared from the Sudanese history. A period of over three hundred years followed, of which little is known. Kingdoms of Napata and Merawi. In 900BC, a Sudanese kingdom, with a strong Egyptian cultural and religious influence, arose at Napata, near modern Meroe. And about 760 B.C., under the kings Kashata and Piankhi, they conquered Egypt, and together with their successors of whom Tirhaqo was the most famous, constituted the 25th dynasty of the rulers of Egypt. About the year 660B.C, the Assyrians under their king Ashurbanipal finally drove the Sudanese rulers out of Egypt. Their descendants, however continued to live in Sudan for another thousand years. The capital was at Napata until about 550 BC, when it was moved to Meroe, north of modern Shendi. Napata, however, remained the religious centre until about 300 BC and the kings and queens of Meroe continued to be buried there during this period. The town retained considerable importance until, in 23 BC, it was captured and sacked by the Romans. The kingdom of Meroe reached the height of its prosperity at the beginning of the Christian era and thereafter gradually declined. Little is known of this period, as the language in which the Meroitic people wrote is not yet fully understood. The kingdom finally succumbed either to tribes from further south, or to the king of Axurn (Ethiopia) in about 300 BC. The invasion of the Axurnites did not lead to permanent occupation and for the next two hundred years the Northern Sudan was ruled by a number of independent kinglets. The history of this period is obscure, as these rulers were illiterate and probably largely nomadic. Christianity in Sudan In 542-543 AD, during the reign of Justinian, the country was rapidly Christianized. To begin with, it adhered to the Greek (Melkite) church, but about 700 AD, the monophysites (Coptic Church) became dominant. Politically, the country was divided into two kingdoms: the Northern Kingdom of Muqarra, which had its capital at Old Dongola and the southern kingdom of Alwa with its capital at Soba, south of Khartoum. Many churches were built along the Nile, but to what extent the more remote regions were affected remains yet to be known. Islam in Sudan The Muslim conquest of Egypt was followed by further attempts to extend their rule by attacking Dongola several times, but these attempts were to no avail. A treaty signed in 652 AD, established a period of uneasy peace which lasted for six years, but was interrupted by sporadic conflicts in the northernmost part of Sudan. Around the year 1260, the policy of the Turkish Mamluke rulers of Egypt towards the Sudan changed, and numerous raids during the next fifty years led to anarchy in the Northern Kingdom, the sack of Old Dongola and the overthrow of the Maqarran dynasty in about 1340. This was followed by rapid immigration from Egypt, the Islamisation of the Sudan as far south as Shendi and the partitioning of land among tribal leaders. The southern kingdom of Aiwa survived longer, although Arab tribes appear to have moved into the country in the middle of the 15th century. History places the final overthrow of the kingdom in 1504, as a result of an alliance between immigrant Arabs from the north and a people of obscure; probably southern origin called the Funj. The Funj Kingdom The Funj and their allies established a Muslim kingdom that fasted for three hundred years. The influence of these "Black Sultans", with their capital at Sennai, extended at the height of their power, from the Third Cataract in the north to Fazogli in the south. They even ruled Kordofan for a few years in the second half of the 18th century. A strong Christian kingdom in Abyssinia prevented the expansion to the east. The Sultanate was really little more than a fragile feudal confederation, the land being parceled out among kinglets who enjoyed considerable independence. Eventually the failure to build up a centralised administration, and the weakness of the royal house itself brought about the disintegration of the kingdom, and the end of the 18th century saw one after the other of the chieftains throwing off their allegiance to Sennar. By 1820, the authority of the Funj scarcely extended north of Khartoum. Turko-Egyptian Rule In 1820, Muhammad Ali, the Turkish Pasha of Egypt, sent two military expeditions south and westward into Sudan, capturing Sennar and El Obeid in the following year. Thus began the period of Turko-Egyptian rule in Sudan, which lasted till 1885. A new capital was established at Khartoum and the country was divided into provinces and districts, with Turks or Egyptians in charge. It appears that Muhammad Ali invaded Sudan mainly in the hope of obtaining gold and black men to enlist in his army, which he intended to use in his schemes against his own master, the Ottoman Sultan. The new government remained little more than a tax collecting body, and a prosperous slave trade was ensued between the Sudan and Egypt. About 1850, the first Christian missionaries arrived in southern Sudan. The reign of the Khedive of Egypt, Ismail (1863-79) saw a number of changes. He had plans for the creation of a large empire south of Egypt. To realise this end, he conquered Darfur in 1874 with the active help of AI Zubeir Pasha, and by 1876, had established outposts along the Nile as far as the Great Lakes. Communications were improved by connecting Darfur and Egypt via Khartoum with a telegraph line. He employed European explorers and administrators like Sir samuel Baker and Colonel Gordon. Under Gordon's administration, a concerted attempt to abolish the slave trade was made, which met with some success. Little was done, however, to develop the resources of the country. Generally speaking, the TurkoEgyptian government of the Sudan was doomed to failure. The appointed officials lacked public spirit, were unpopular among the people and were considered as a burden for the country. The Mahdiya In 1881, a religious leader, Mohamed Ahmed El Mahdi, led a revolt against the government. His rebellion, which was a movement for both religious and political reform, was widely successful. It triumphed with the capture of Khartoum, where General Gordon, who was the last Turkish governor, was killed in 1885. On the advice of the British, who occupied Egypt since 1882, the Turko-Egyptian government was withdrawn. Although the Mahdi died in the same year, the Sudan under his successor, the Khalifa Abd Allah remained independent until 1898. The British-Egyptian rule (The Condominium) Various reasons, including the British fear of the establishment of French influence over the Upper Nile area, led to the reconquest of the Sudan. An Anglo-Egyptian force led by General Kitchener, invaded Sudan between 1896 and 1898, and the invasion culminated in the battle of Omdurman. The Khalifa escaped, but died in battle later in 1899. The establishment of a French outpost in Fashoda caused grave international tension. But it was eventually withdrawn because of the heavy British pressure. The rule of the Mahdi was accompanied by considerable dislocation of Sudanese economic and tribal life; hence, a new administration had to be established. The old Turko-Egyptian system of provinces and districts was reintroduced, but with British officers in all key administrative posts. Kitchener was appointed the first Governor-General. The structure for the form of governing Sudan was defined in the 1899 Condominium Agreement between Britain and Egypt. This agreement enforced the separation of the administration of Sudan from that of Egypt and of putting the former under joint Anglo-Egyptian control, with the British influence predominant. National rule: The political development of the country during the Condominium underwent three phases: 1898-1938: During this period, civilians gradually substituted the military officers in the administration. After the First World War, Sudanese tribal leaders were encouraged to take over subordinate local administration. 1938-1951: With the foundation of the Graduates General Congress at the beginning of this period, there appeared an indigenous political movement among educated Sudanese. The "Sudanization" of the control government was initiated; by 1944, Sudanese were sitting on the Province Councils and an Advisory Council for Northern Sudan with Sudanese members was founded. At about this time, the Graduates Congress split into two parties, one favouring union with Egypt and the other demanding complete independence for the Sudan. In 1948, a party-elected Legislative Assembly with limited powers was set up. 1951-1953: Negotiations concerning the future of Sudan were at first inconclusive, but finally in February 1953, the British and the Egyptian Governments signed an agreement. This provided that a three-year period of self-government under international supervision was to begin immediately, to foster the decision of the Sudanese people on the future of their country. Elections of the self-government parliament took place in November and December 1953. Independence The newly elected government went ahead with the process of Sudanization of the state's organs and bodies, with the help and supervision of an international committee. In November 1955, it declared the intentions of the Sudanese people to exercise their right of independence. This was duly granted and on the 1st of January 1956, Sudan was formerly declared independent. in a special ceremony held at the People's Palace, the British and Egyptian flags were brought down and the new Sudanese flag, composed of green, blue and yellow stripes, was hoisted high in the air. Post-Independence in Sudan After obtaining its independence, Sudan under went several systems of national governments ranging between military and civil rule. The first national government was headed by Ismail El Azhari, followed by another under the leadership of Abdaila Khalil. This government stayed in power till 1958 when the armed forces staged a coup d'etat and a military government chaired by General Aboud ruled up to 1964. A popular uprising led to the demise of the military regime and after holding elections under a care taking government, a nationally, civilian elected government took the reigns of power followed by two other governments till 1969. In May 1969, the armed forces moved again and the May regime ruled for sixteen years. In 1985, another uprising against the regime led to a caretaker government that held general elections and subsequently an elected government led by Sadig El Mahdi governed till June 1989. Then, in a move by the army, the National Salvation Revolution was declared and a military government under the leadership of General Omer Hassan Elbashir was established.
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